|
此文章由 mwang1207 原创或转贴,不代表本站立场和观点,版权归 oursteps.com.au 和作者 mwang1207 所有!转贴必须注明作者、出处和本声明,并保持内容完整
MODULE 3. Performance Measurement(15%)
• Part A: Context of performance measurement and control
这一章节主要关注与三种performances,包括:individual performance, divisional or departmental or functional performance, and whole-of-organization performance。这三个层次的成果是否取得,决定了企业是否可以达成其目标。
而Performance measurement主要有四种目的:
1) To help management implement and monitor strategy;
2) To support management decision-making;
3) To motivate managers and other employees; and
4) To communicate with, or signal to, stakeholders.
在考虑业绩评定的主要用途之前,我们需要搞清楚不同组织之间的相互关系,这些组织主要有:governance and accountability(conformance & performance), strategy management (interface between the external competitive environment & the organization’s capabilities),
Management control systems (interface between the strategy of the organization, its operations, and the organization’s performance), & organizational outcomes (tracked by performance measures).
1) Support decision-making
业绩评定的一个重要的角色就是帮助管理层做决定,即support decision-making。企业的decisions可以分成运营层面(operational)和决策层面(strategic)。于此有关的业绩评价指标可以有 market share, manufacturing capability, time-to-market, and competitors’ costs and prices。一般来说,决策层面的决定对企业时候长远的影响,是不能够轻易逆转的;另一方面,运营层面的决定则注重于短期,并且可以修改。
业绩评定中的variance analysis则为企业的planning & control,以及提供learning opportunities方面提供了重要的支持。Variance analysis的主要功能是找出预算和实际数字之间的差异,以及差异所产生的原因。
2) Motivating behavior
Performance management helps managers to motivate employees to focus on organizational goals and to do their best for the organization. 同时,由于评价机制的存在,一些不理想的行为也会变少。但也要注意的就是,设计上存在缺陷的业绩评定机制也会导致dysfunctional behavior的产生。
3) Signalling
Signalling occurs when a measure is used to communicate information.
Part B: Characteristics of effective performance measures
Performance measures包含了财务数据以及非财务数据。一般来说,单一的performance measure是不能满足所有的需求,也就是所谓的“on one-size fits all”。要取得有效的Performance measures,需要满足几项条件:validity/accuracy, reliability, clarity, cost, timeliness, accessibility, controllability, gambling & manipulation, relevance。
分清楚什么是accuracy和precision是很重要的(P3.18),很多时候accuracy要比是否precision重要很多。关于controllability里面需要注意的是,用来评价某个体的数据必须是该个体可以控制的,即跟其相关的,在其控制之内的数据.另外gambling这里指的是管理层虽然用某种手段达到了、或者改变了performance measure的结果,但是他们的行为并不一定会给企业带来好处,例子有对return on investment (ROI) 的使用。而manipulation则一般指违法违规的行为,通常表示fraud。
• Part C: Benchmarking
Benchmarking is to compare your organization’s activities against a reference point. Benchmarking的作用,就是让企业提供现有的运营程序并且寻找更有效的方法。Benchmark来自三种来源,分别为:within your own organization, an organization in your industry, and another organization outside of your industry。
Figure 3.4 列出了benchmarking process的六个步骤。只有当整个benchmarking的过程是不间断的、持续的,那么这个过程才会更有效率。因此,企业必须做到:1)monitor the results of their changed processes; 2) take further action as needed; and 3) repeat the whole series of processes。
Deciding on performance measures
选择怎样的benchmarking measures取决于管理层所要做的决定类型。我们必须首先保证的,就是我们所比较的benchmark,是企业打算取得的目标。另一项重要的标准,是要保证我们可以找出形成差异的原因,并且制订出相应的策略。
Benchmarking partners
Benchmarking partners的来源是多种多样,主要包括了三大种类:internal benchmarks, industry benchmarks, and external benchmarks。
一般而言,内部标准是最简单,却也是最无效的benchmarks。更普遍的情况是,企业用internal benchmarking来评价内部部门或者员工的业绩,作为内部竞争的一种衡量。
企业更经常地,是使用同行业的平均数据或者是最佳数据作为benchmarks。
Obtaining benchmarking measures
如何获取benchmarks的数据是最困难的步骤之一。材料里面提供了三种方法获取数据。第一种是直接获取,如果数据方式企业的竞争对手,那么这种方法基本是不可能实现的。第二种方式,则是找竞争对手在其它地理区域的分部获取相关的数据。最后一种方式,则是通过咨询公司等间接获取,即所谓的secondary resource。
Problems with benchmarking
在使用benchmarking的过程中,会碰到不少问题,主要包括:
1. Participation of employees and benchmarking partners.
在实施benchmarking process 的过程,需要企业内部员工的配合。但是由于在具体数字比较的时候,特别是员工的performance低于平均水平时,员工可能就会有排斥的情绪,或者质疑benchmarks的可信度。
2. Benchmarking does not explain differences. There is a variation does not mean much without some ongoing investigation.
3. Context.这个问题来自于对比数据来源的不统一性。即使是在同一行业,各个企业仍旧有其不同之处,所统计出来的数据也会因为企业运营的差别而存在着不同的context,这就造成了making comparison and interpretation difficult。
4. Standardization. One of the key issues is to ensure that the performance measures are standardized.
5. Historical data.
• Part D: Performance measures and balanced monitoring systems
Kaplan 的balanced scorecard包含了四个方面,分别为:financial perspective, customer perspective, internal process perspective, and learning& growth perspective。BSC强调一个balance,传统的业绩评价方法都是强调企业的财务利润,而更为全面的分析方式则需要涵盖更为广泛的内容。
Lagging indicators显示的是历史的、已发生的信息;而leading indicators则为未来提供了一个指引。因此,BSC需要包含lagging和leading的数据。
材料中主要介绍了三种scorecards,根据他们的主要用途和所涉及的stakeholders(重点):
1)Key performance indicator (KPI) scorecards:KPI包含了大量的标准,包括可控制和不可控制的,其主要用于support & monitor decision-making。
2)Strategy scorecards:跟KPI相比,strategy scorecards的measures比较少,而且the measures tend to be interlinked in a casual chain and should be controllable。主要用于制定目标(set target)和问责制(create accountability)。
3)Stakeholder scorecards:这一类型的scorecards主要关注于各个stakeholders的相关利益问题。一般用于signaling。
Implementing strategy
BSC是为了帮助管理层将企业策略付诸到行动中,the BSC communicates the strategy to managers and so improves their understanding and commitment。但是,为了达到这一目的,企业必须做到如下三点:
1. -Agree on a clear strategy;
2. -Define measures that are derived from this strategy;
3. -Set targets and make people responsible and accountable。
Strategy map
Strategy map的好处在于,它可以将企业的策略和其评价系统联系起来。A strategy map is a cause-and-effect chain of strategic objectives through which the strategy will be implemented。
这里理解strategy map的重点,in constructing a strategy map, the top-level objectives and measures need to be supported by a set of subordinate objectives and measures。
Cascading measures
当企业的BSC是多层次的,管理层需要将企业最顶层的策略细分到每一个层面,即each organizational unit, or at the extreme, each employee, will have their own BSC。而每一低层面的BSC,必须和其上一层的BSC相互一致。三种分散的方式有:direct cascading, cascading by perspectives, and logical thinking。三种方式里面,logical thinking可以最有效地将企业的策略和行动连接起来,但也是最复杂的一种方式。
Sustainability
Sustainability和CSR 都是企业发展中所要面临的重要问题,因此制定跟其有关的performance measurement和control是非常重要的。但是,根据2009年Moulang & Ferreira的研究,environmental strategies并没有很好地和企业的整体发展策略联系起来。This results in failure to incorporate environmental impact assessments into capital investments which leads to problems with managing future cost structures。
首先,搞清楚什么是’sustainability’:it means living off the interest, and preserving the capital。在Porter的观点里面,CSR是关于如何将企业和社会结合在一起,取得对二者有共同利益的目标。
• Part E: Organizational effects of performance measurement
Performance and reward systems
业绩评价的一种重要用途之一,就是去激励企业的员工。员工的performance涵盖了多个方面,包括motivation, skills & knowledge, and environmental factors。用公式表示为:
Performance= Motivation + Skills and Knowledge + Environment
1. Motivation
Motivation is the desire (goal direction) and drive (effort). 要注意的是,这里的goal direction应该是企业的目标而不是员工个人的目标。Robbins’ (1994)对motivation的定义为” organizational motivation is conditioned by the ability to satisfy some individual need”。员工付出努力追求实现企业目标的行为,是在为自身获取利益的前提下展开的。
那么,员工所追求的自身需求又是什么呢?下面的是跟motivation有关的三种理论:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
该理论按照从下到上的顺序,描述的人最基本的需求到高层次的自我认可:physiological àsecurity à social à esteem à self-actualization。适当的motivation取决于当时的生活和社会环境和员工个人的情况。
Hertzberg’s hygiene and motivation factors
两种类型的需求:hygiene factors和motivation factors。
第一种hygiene factor指的是,这些需求的满足可以避免员工产生负面的情绪,但也不会激发员工取得更好的表现。这种Factors一般指:working conditions, relationship with the supervisor, salary, status and security。
第二种motivation factor则指更高一层的需求,如:achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility and advancement。
Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation
这里理论认为motivation是由两个部分组成,分别为:expectancy和instrumentality。而rewards也有两种类型,分别为intrinsic和extrinsic。根据这个理论,管理层需要对以下三点有清楚的认识:
The performance measure with which they are being evaluated;
How their behavior can affect the measured performance variable; and
How the achievement of performance targets relates to their individual reward.
2. Skills and knowledge
技术和知识是personal attributes of employees。即使员工有极大的热情,如果缺乏相关的或者足够的技术和知识,他/她仍旧不能取得满意的成绩。It is important to ensure that measurable skills and knowledge are directly linked to the desired performance outcomes and, in turn, to the articulated strategic goals of the organization。
3. Environment
External environment: 外部环境一般是指不受个体控制的环境。
Internal functional environment: 一般指跟企业实现目标策略相关的过程和企业结构。Internal control may have a large influence on performance and limit the control that the individual has on the result。
Internal social environment: 指的是企业内部管理文化是否公平,管理的风格,以及企业组织的氛围。
4. Rewards
要创造一个更好的performance-focused 的企业内部环境,有效的reward systems是必不可少的。Good performance needs to be measured in a way that reinforces the key strategic and operational priorities of the organization。
对于管理层,比较主要的extrinsic rewards包括了cash-based plans和equity-based plans;而对于相对低层的员工,奖励的方式则多种多样,包括:gain sharing, piece-rate systems, labor cost-related plan, and bonus systems。
如何将rewards和performance有效地连接起来,取决于timing和individual versus group rewards两个方面。
|
|