澳洲華裔社群從二十世紀初開始使用「華僑」一詞,而這一詞多半被研究 華人史的學者詮釋為與中國民族主義有關。1近年來有關澳洲華裔歷史的華文 研究也多半指稱,澳洲華裔受到中國民族主義和中國政治局勢發展的影響,進 而將澳洲華裔社群的政治結社簡單地理解成中國保皇黨和革命黨勢力的延 伸。2而同時間澳洲學者的研究則強調十九世紀末到二十世紀初的華裔社群, 深化了澳洲現代化與全球化的進程,然而卻未能探究這段時期華裔社群的「華 僑」論述和具有強烈情感的中國意象。3這兩派學者的研究也彰顯了海外華裔 社群擺盪在兩種文化和歷史認同下的處境,其多元的認同無法被簡單地分類。 而本文則希望探討自 1901 年澳洲聯邦政府成立到中國辛亥革命期間,華裔社 群對「華僑」的論述和政治結社,與其所彰顯的對於現代化的反應、離散的認 同以及其中國的意象。透過這些政治言辭和結社,本文希望強調政治對於海外 華裔社群的社會意義。
本文重新審視澳洲華裔之所以接受「華僑」一詞的緣由,認為此詞無法被
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有關「華僑」這個字彙的出現和使用參見 Wang Gungwu, “South China Perspectives on Overseas Chinese,” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 13 (January 1985), pp. 69-84,以及莊國土,《中 國封建政府的華僑政策》(廈門:廈門大學出版社,1989),和李盈慧,《華僑政策與海外 民族主義(1912-1949)》(台北:國史館,1997)。 參見趙令揚,〈辛亥革命期間海外中國知識分子對中國革命的看法─ 梅光達,邱菽園與康梁 的關係〉,《近代史研究》,1992 年第 2 期,頁 46-67;趙令揚、楊永安,〈晚清期間澳大利亞 的保皇活動及其與革命思潮間的矛盾〉,《明清史集刊》,卷 4(1999 年 10 月),頁 1-31;楊永 安,〈二十世紀初澳大利亞華人果業的發展與危機─ 由 1904 年「仇視華人會」談起〉,《明 清史集刊》,卷 7(2004 年 11 月),頁 213-260;楊永安,〈論清季中國駐澳大利亞使館的設立 與其外交人員觸犯刑案之始末,《東方文化》,卷 40 期 1、2 (2006),頁 163-180;邱捷,〈從華 文報紙看清末的澳大利亞華僑〉,收入中國社會科學院近代史研究所編,《近代中國與世界: 第二屆近代中國與世界學術討論會論文集(第二卷)》(北京:社會科學文獻出版社,2005), 頁 367-380;趙令揚、楊永安,〈救災與救國:二十世紀三十年代澳洲華人之中國情懷〉,收入 《近代中國與世界:第二屆近代中國與世界學術討論會論文集(第二卷)》,頁 381-401。 John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007); Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the Question of Racial Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
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11 Year Book of Commonwealth Australia, No. 18. Lindsay M. Smith, The Chinese of Kiandra New South Wales: A Report to the Heritage Office of the New South Wales Department of Urban Development [i.e. Affairs] and Planning (Sydney: Heritage Office, N.S.W. Dept. of Urban Affairs & Planning, 1997), pp. 17, 43.
12 Paul Jones, Chinese-Australian Journeys: Records on Travel, Migration and Settlements, 1860-1975 (Canberra: National Archives of Australia, 2005), p. 17; C. Y. Choi, Chinese Migration and Settlement in Australia (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1975), pp. 29, 52.
13 十九世紀末墨爾本的經濟起飛和繁榮,請參見 Graeme Davison, “Marvellous Melbourne,” in The Rise and Fall of Marvellous Melbourne (Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 1978), pp. 229-288.
14 T. A. Coghlan and T. T. Ewing, The Progress of Australasia in the Nineteenth Century (London: W. & R. Chambers, Ltd., 1903), pp. 185, 447.
15 華裔人口數參見 C. F. Yong, The New Gold Mountain: The Chinese in Australia, 1901-1921 (Richmond: Raphael Arts, 1977), pp. 4-6.
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人,而到了 1888 年則增加到 4,202 人,1901 年澳洲聯邦成立時,雪梨的華裔 人數為 3,680 人,佔新南威爾斯州華裔總人口的四分之一;16而另一大城墨爾本 則有 2,500 名華裔人口,佔維多利亞州華裔總人口的 38.3%。17
但城市中排華運動者的排擠和壓力,依舊如影隨形地跟著華裔移民。尤其 在澳洲都市勞工階級興起,以及十九世紀末澳洲經濟蕭條的影響下,越發加劇 都市中華裔社群的困境,雪梨史家就指出,短短幾年間城市華裔人口劇增,導 致了另一波的排華運動。18然而,澳洲華裔並未像太平洋彼岸的美國華裔從都 市走向內陸;19為了適應都市生活以及減輕排華的壓力,城市中華裔社群的經 濟型態、社會網絡和生活節奏也逐漸改變。華裔的時間意識就是一例,都市裡 逐漸高漲的「八小時工制」的勞工運動,影響了華裔移民,開始以時鐘和西曆 為基準來規劃他們的生活作息,20生活使得華裔社群更迫切地需要學習英文, 以利與澳洲人做生意,這不僅增進了都市中華裔的雙語能力,也改變了他們的 結社和社會領導權方式。211890 年代之前,華裔社群多是聚集在鄉村以及礦 區,他們以方言群做為結社的主要對象。22迥異於傳統方言群等以血緣和地緣 為入會基準的新結社方式,開始出現在十九世紀末的雪梨,具有雙語能力的華
16 Paul Jones, Chinese-Australian Journeys, p. 16. 另參見:Shirley Fitzgerald, “Chinese.” http://www. dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/chinese (2011/1/3)
17 Paul Jones, Chinese-Australian Journeys, p.16. 另參見:“Chinese.” http://www.emelbourne.net.au/ biogs/EM00338b.htm (2011/1/3)
18 Shirley Fitzgerald, Red Tape, Gold Scissors: The Story of Sydney’s Chinese (Sydney: State Library of New South Wales Press, 1997), p. 27.
19 Peter Kwong, Chinatown, New York: Labor and Politics, 1930-1950 (New York: The New Press, 2001, revised edition), p. 38; Sucheng Chang, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (San Francisco: Pettit & Russ, 1986), p. 76.
20 Q. 14052, 14198, 14407, 14473, 15744 and 15799, Report of the Royal Commission on Alleged Chinese Gambling and Immorality and Charges of Bribery against Members of the Police Force, 1891-1892 (Sydney: New South Wales Government Printer, 1892); Graeme Davison, The Unforgiving Minute: How Australia Learned to Tell the Time (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 92-93.
21 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,” Ph.D. thesis (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 2008), chapter 2.
22 C. F. Yong, The New Gold Mountain, p. 189.
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1894 到 1902 年,雪梨與墨爾本一共發行了三份華文報紙:《廣益華報》 (1894-1923)、《東華新報》(1898-1902、1903-1936 年改名《東華報》)、和 《愛國報》(1902-1905、1906 年後改為《警東新報》),到 1923 年時則共
23 進一步的討論參見 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Chinese Australian Herald and the Shaping of a Modern ‘Imagined’ Chinese Community in 1890s Colonial Sydney,” Journal of Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies 2, pp. 34-53.
24 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Chinese Australian Herald and the Shaping of a Modern ‘Imagined’ Chinese Community in 1890s Colonial Sydney,” Journal of Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies 2, pp. 34-53.
25 Craig Calhoun, “Indirect Relationships and Imagined Communities: Large-scale Social Integration and the Transformation of Everyday Life,” in Pirre Bourdieu and James S. Coleman, eds., Social Theory for a Changing Society (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1991), pp. 95-97, 102-103.
26 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,” Ph.D. thesis, pp. 145-149.
27 C. F. Yong, The New Gold Mountain, p. 82; John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, p. 182.
28 麥留芳,《方言群認同─ 早期星馬華人的分類法則》(台北:中央研究院民族學研究所,1985)。 張曉威,〈晚清駐檳榔嶼副領事之角色分析〉(台北:政治大學歷史學研究所博士論文,2004),
42 Michael Williams, “Would This Not Help Your Federation?” in Sophie Couchman, John Fitzgerald and Paul Macgregor, eds., After the Rush: Regulation, Participation and Chinese Communities in Australia 1860-1940 (Kingsbury: Otherland Literary Journal, 2004), pp. 36-37.
43 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,” Ph.D. thesis, p. 5.
44 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,” Ph.D. thesis, p. 329.
45 Helen Irving, To Constitute a Nation: A Cultural History of Australia’s Constitution (New York:
52 舉例來說,華商會社也透過保皇會的關係向墨爾本及西澳地區的華商募集基金,成為位於香港 的中國商務公司的股東。〈商會集股三誌〉,《東華報》,1903 年 8 月 1 日,頁 3;〈中國商 務公司聚會〉,《東華報》,1903 年 11 月 21 日,頁 3。同時二十世紀初,雪梨華商也分別在 廣東和香港等地建立其商業網絡,並建立了最為人所知的為上海與香港的四大百貨公司。
53 Sydney Morning Herald, 5 May 1904, p. 8.
54 〈倡力保商會布告文〉,《東華報》,1904 年 7 月 16 日,附張。
55 〈倡力保商會布告文〉,《東華報》,1904 年 7 月 16 日,附張。〈雪梨阜倡立保商會布告文〉,
《廣益華報》,1904 年 11 月 19 日,頁 5。
56 Rev. John Young Wai, “Chinese Mission Church, Foster Street,” Ministering Women 28 (April
1904), issued quarterly by the Women’s Missionary Association of the Presbyterian Church of New
South Wales.
57 Sydney Morning Herald, 22 August 1904, p. 8
58 蔡少卿,〈澳洲鳥修威雪梨中華商會研究(1902-1943)〉,《江蘇社會科學》,2005 年第 4 期, 頁 198-204。
59 John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, p. 181.
60 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Making of a Diasporic Identity: The Case of the Sydney Chinese Commercial
Elite, 1890s-1900s,” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5:2 (2009), pp. 336-363.
61 〈爪哇通信〉,《東華報》,1906 年 10 月 27 日,頁 2;〈南洋富商與中國實業─ 本館星加 坡通信〉,1906 年 12 月 1 日,頁 2;〈紀汪伯棠欽使抵星加坡情形〉,《東華報》,1907 年 7 月 20 日,頁 2;〈新嘉坡通信〉,《東華報》,1907 年 8 月 31 日,頁 3;〈爪哇通信〉、
〈小呂宋通信〉,《東華報》,1907 年 12 月 28 日,頁 2。
62 〈紀蔡君之歸阜〉,《東華報》,1907 年 11 月 30 日,頁 7。雪梨華商的商業網絡和保皇會之
間的關係,以及其認同的轉變,可參見 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Making of a Diasporic Identity: The Case of the Sydney Chinese Commercial Elite, 1890s-1900s,” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5:2, pp. 336-363.
月 20 日,頁 3。
80 〈差怨義興〉,《廣益華報》,1904年9月17日,頁5;SydneyMorningHerald,31August1904.
81 〈租事有人〉,《東華報》,1904 年 10 月 15 日,附張。
82 〈私鬥既和〉,《警東新報》,1905 年 3 月 11 日,頁 3。
83 〈華人械鬥之事又見〉,《東華報》,1905 年 3 月 11 日,附張。
84 Clarke, J. L., The Chinese Case Against the Chinese Employment Bill, Melbourne, 1907, in the Chinese
Heritage of Australian Federation (CHAF) Databases: http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/ (2009/12/20)
85 “The Chinese Cabinet Markers and the Anti-Sweating League’s Report,” Political Science Pamphlets, vol. 103, State Library of Victoria. 儘管此法案 1905 年於下議院通過,但是直到 1907
年才在上議院通過。
91 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Making of a Diasporic Identity: The Case of the Sydney Chinese Commercial Elite, 1890s-1900s,” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5:2, pp. 336-363.
92 〈美利濱阜黃輝山來函論秉求華人來澳洲事〉,《東華報》,1906 年 2 月 3 日,頁 6;〈紀澳 洲限制華人之禁例〉,《東華報》,1906 年 7 月 21 日,頁 6;〈來信彙錄〉,《警東新報》, 1906 年 3 月 10 日,附張。
93 〈來信彙錄〉,《警東新報》,1906 年 3 月 10 日,附張;〈要緊代論〉,《警東新報》,1909 年 9 月 25 日,頁 2。
94 〈鴉片之害終難禁絕焉〉,《東華報》,1907 年 3 月 30 日,頁 7;〈中國預備立憲與本洲運 動禁煙之比例〉、〈來函論禁煙事〉,《警東新報》,1907 年 2 月 2 日,頁 1。
95 Mei-fen Kuo, “The Making of a Diasporic Identity: The Case of the Sydney Chinese Commercial Elite, 1890s-1900s,” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5:2, pp. 336-363.
109 A1/15, 1914/10138, “Goot Chee and Yuk Kee, Exemption Certificate,” Department of External Affairs, National Archives of Australia.
110 A1/15, 1914/10138, “Goot Chee and Yuk Kee, Exemption Certificate,” Department of External Affairs, National Archives of Australia.
111 〈論今日華僑之權利思想〉,《警東新報》,1909年3月27日,頁2。
112 Chinese Correspondence of 1909, dated 18 April 1909, Archival Collections of Chinese
Consul-General, Melbourne.
113 〈駐英使署來函〉,《警東新報》,1908年11月28日,頁8;〈駐英使署來函〉,《東華報》,
124 〈改用帝國憲政會新名布告〉,《東華報》,1907年3月2日,頁2。
125 111/5, “Records of Meeting of Chinese Empire Reform Association of NSW,” dated 17 September
and 2 October 1905, Noel Butlin Archives, Australia National University.
126 〈論今後之朝局〉,《警東報》,1907 年 1 月 26 日,頁 2;〈慨我國立憲之前途〉,《警東
報》,1907 年 3 月 30 日,頁 2;〈論團體宜加振勵〉,《警東報》,1907 年 4 月 27 日,頁 2。
127 111/5, “Records of Meeting of Chinese Empire Reform Association of NSW,” dated 17 September
and 2 October 1905, Noel Butlin Archives, Australia National University.
128 〈斥保皇報以革命為匪亂之謬妄〉,《警東新報》,1911年6月17日,頁2-3。
129 林克光,《革命派巨人康有為》(北京:中國人民大學出版社,1990),頁 390。
130 馮自由,《華僑革命開國史》,頁 118。
Singapore and Malaya (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 156.
140 林克光,《革命派巨人康有為》,頁 381。
141 〈華人教習亦不許入境乎〉,《東華報》,1909年9月25日,頁7。
142 〈美利伴漢文半夜學堂勸捐小啟〉,《警東新報》,1909年10月23日,頁10-11。
143 〈美利伴漢文半夜學堂勸捐小啟〉,《警東新報》,1909年10月23日,頁10-11。
144 〈歡迎陸教習之盛會〉,《東華報》,1910年1月8日,頁7。
145 〈華文蒙養學堂開校之盛況〉,《東華報》,1910年2月26日,頁7。
146 Chinese Correspondence of 1910 and 1911, dated 6 December 1910 and 8 March 1911, Archival
Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne.
147 〈華文蒙養學堂開校之盛況〉,《東華報》,1910年2月26日,頁7。
148 蔡佩容,《清季駐新加坡領事之探討》(新加坡:新加坡國立大學中文系,2002),頁 110-111。
149 〈駐英汪欽使致本報代達澳洲同胞書〉,《東華報》,1907年4月13日,頁6。
150 Chinese Correspondence of 1910 and 1911, dated December 1910 and 8 March 1911, Archival
Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne.
151 〈思國〉,《東華報》,1911年2月4日,頁14。
152 周容威牧師從十九世紀末開始影響了許多雪梨華裔接受基督教,其中相當多的蕉農在他的英文
學校中習得英文與其他西方知識,長老教會可以說是當時跨越地緣組織與宗親聯繫的一個公共 場域;許多回到香港與上海建立其商業王國的雪梨華商,依舊視周容威牧師為導師,諸多更成 為支持孫中山共和革命的力量,像是先施公司的馬應標與歐彬。相關討論參見 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,” Ph.D. thesis, chapter 2.
153 “Annual Report of Women’s Missionary Association,” Presbyterian Church of New South Wales, 1906, p. 16.
154 〈周牧師對於學堂之觀感〉,《東華報》,1910年5月21日,頁6-7。
155 〈周牧師對於學堂之觀感〉,《東華報》,1910年5月21日,頁6-7。
156 〈周牧師對於學堂之觀感〉,《東華報》,1910年5月21日,頁6-7。
157 Sydney Morning Herald, 13 May 1910.
167 〈對於清領事梁蘭勳卸任之感言〉,《警東新報》,1910年11月28日,頁2-3。
168 〈新寧雜誌出世〉,《警東新報》,1909 年 3 月 6 日,頁 5;Madeline Y. Hsu, “Qiaokan and the Transnational Community of Taishan County, Guangdong, 1882-1943,” The China Review 4:1
(spring 2004), p. 124.
169 〈孔誕紀念會演說辭〉,《警東新報》,1909年10月16日,頁2-3。
170 〈論今日宜奉孔子為宗教〉,《警東新報》,1908年10月17日,頁2。
171 〈美利伴大開孔誕紀念會〉,《警東新報》,1909年10月9日,頁8-9。
172 〈孔誕紀念會演說辭〉,《警東新報》,1909 年 10 月 16 日,頁 2-3;Wang Ming-ke, “From the
Qiang Barbarians to the Qiang Nationality: The Making of a New Chinese Boundary,” in Shu-min Huang and Cheng-kuang Hsu, eds., Imagining China: Regional Division and National Unity (Taipei: The Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, 1999), pp. 43-80.
173 〈本阜將有自由演說團出現〉,《警東新報》,1910年11月12日,頁7。
174 馮自由,《華僑革命開國史》,頁 119。
175 〈介紹各報〉,《警東新報》,1911年1月21日,頁11。
176 〈澳洲公舉代表請願電詞〉,《東華報》,1910年3月12日,頁2。
177 〈敬告澳洲二萬餘華僑〉,《東華報》,1910年8月6日,頁7。
178 The Age (Melbourne), 24 January 1911.
179 〈少年中國會開幕盛況〉,《警東新報》,1911年1月28日,頁6。
180 The Age, 24 January 1911.
181 〈年曆〉,《警東新報》,1911年2月11日,附張掛曆。
182 Mei-fen Kuo, “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912,”
Ph.D. thesis, pp. 274-275.
183 〈自由演說團〉,《警東新報》,1911年9月16日,頁5。
184 民國四年春季公文,第21號,1915年2月,ArchivalCollectionsofChineseConsul-General,Melbourne.
185 陳志明,《中國國民黨澳洲黨務發展實況》,頁 37-38。
194 The Sun, 3 November 1911.
195 Sydney Morning Herald, 25 October 1911. Daily Telegraph, 3 November 1911.
196 Janice Wood, “Chinese Residency in the Haymarket and Surry Hills-1880 to 1902,” BA (hons)
thesis (Sydney: University of Sydney, 1994), Map 33.
197 John Fitzgerald, Big White Lie, pp. 90-91.
198 〈雪梨阜義興會堂〉,《廣益華報》,1912年1月27日,頁18。
199 Sunday, 12 November 1911.
206 Sydney Morning Herald, 1 March 1912.
207 Evening News, 8 March 1912.
208 MLMSS 312, “G.E. Morris’s Paper,” dated 5 August 1912, State Library of New South Wales.
209 〈廣東財政司函〉,收入《中國國民黨澳洲黨務發展實況》,頁 145;但另一方面《廣益華報》
宣稱總捐款數為 4,691 英磅。參見〈雪梨籌餉局廣告〉,《廣益華報》,1912 年 8 月 3 日,頁 3。
210 Chinese Correspondence of 1912, dated 10 July 1912, Archival Collections of Chinese
Consul-General, Melbourne.
211 〈雪梨華僑國民捐大會紀〉,《東華報》,1912年7月27日,頁7。
212 Chinese Correspondence of Donation, Archival Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne.
《廣益華報》,1912 年 11 月 23 日,頁 4-5;12 月 25 日,頁 4。Chinese Correspondence of 1913,
dated on 16 January 1913, Archival Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne.
213 Chinese Correspondence of Donation, Archival Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne.
中國駐澳洲領事館檔案(Archival Collections of Chinese Consul-General, Melbourne) Chinese Correspondence of 1909-1913, 1915.
Chinese Correspondence of Donation.
English Correspondence of 1912.
C1908-191 秉稿公文:〈僑民暨商務大概情況〉,宣統元年三月十九日。
民國四年春季公文,第 21 號,1915 年 2 月。 雪梨中國國民黨駐澳洲總支部檔案
C96, “Rev. Young Wai’s News-Clipping Book.” 澳洲國家檔案局外務部檔案(Department of External Affairs, National Archives of Australia)
A1/15, 1914/10138, “Goot Chee and Yuk Kee, Exemption Certificate.” A1/1915/13159, 33249, “Chiu Kwok Chun & Ng Hung Poi Passports.” A433/74214, “Population of Chinese in Australia.”
澳洲國立大學藏新南威爾斯州保皇會檔案(Noel Butlin Archives, Australian National University) 111/5, “Records of Meeting of Chinese Empire Reform Association of NSW.” dated 17 September
and 2 October 1905
111/4/1, “Records of Meetings, 1903-1904.”
澳洲新南威爾斯州長老教會檔案(Presbyterian Church of New South Wales, Australia)
“Annual Report of Women’s Missionary Association.” 1906.
Rev. John Young Wai, “Chinese Mission Church, Foster Street.” Ministering Women 28, April 1904,
issued quarterly by the Women’s Missionary Association of the Presbyterian Church of New
South Wales.
澳洲新南威爾斯州立圖書館藏(State Library of New South Wales, Australia)
MLMSS 312, “G.E. Morris’s Paper.” dated 5 August 1912. 澳洲維多利亞州立圖書館藏(State Library of Victoria, Australia)
“The Chinese Cabinet Markers and the Anti-Sweating League’s Report.” Political Science Pamphlets, vol. 103.
〈本部要批一覽表─ 批澳洲總領事設立商會望早為處置由〉,〔清〕商務官報局編,《商務官報》, 冊 4,乙酉年冊 17,頁 313。台北:國立故宮博物院,1982。
Report of the Royal Commission on Alleged Chinese Gambling and Immorality and Charges of Bribery against Members of the Police Force, 1891-1892. Sydney: New South Wales Government Printer, 1892.
-196-
Year Book of Commonwealth Australia, No. 18. Melbourne: Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, 1925.
Smith, Lindsay M. The Chinese of Kiandra New South Wales: A Report to the Heritage Office of the New South Wales Department of Urban Development [i.e. Affairs] and Planning. Sydney: Heritage Office, N.S.W. Dept. of Urban Affairs & Planning, 1997.
Chang, Sucheng. This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910. San Francisco: Pettit & Russ, 1986.
Choi, C. Y. Chinese Migration and Settlement in Australia. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1975. Coghlan, T. A., and T. T. Ewing, The Progress of Australasia in the Nineteenth Century. London: W. &
R. Chambers, Ltd., 1903.
Duara, Prasenjit. Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. Chicago:
Chicago University Press, 1995.
Davison, Graeme. The Unforgiving Minute: How Australia Learned to Tell the Time. Melbourne: Oxford
University Press, 1993.
Davison, Graeme. The Rise and Fall of Marvellous Melbourne. Carlton: Melbourne University Press,
1978.
Elder, Catriona. Being Australian: Narratives of National Identity. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2007. Fitzgerald, Shirley. Red Tape, Gold Scissors: The Story of Sydney’s Chinese. Sydney: State Library of
New South Wales Press, 1997.
Fitzgerald, John. Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. Sydney: University of New
South Wales Press, 2007.
Irving, Helen. To Constitute a Nation: A Cultural History of Australia’s Constitution. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Jones, Paul. Chinese-Australian Journeys: Records on Travel, Migration and Settlements, 1860-1975.
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Canberra: National Archives of Australia, 2005.
Kwong, Peter. Chinatown, New York: Labor and Politics, 1930-1950. New York: The New Press, 2001,
revised edition.
Lake, Marilyn, and Henry Reynolds. Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the
Question of Racial Equality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Smith, H.A., F.S.S. The Official Year Book of N.S.W. 1920. Sydney: New South Wales Goverment Printer,
1921.
Yen, Ching Hwang. Overseas Chinese and the 1911 Revolution: With Special Reference to Singapore and
Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Yong, C. F. The New Gold Mountain: The Chinese in Australia, 1901-1921. Richmond: Raphael Arts,
1977.
Yong, C. F., and R. B. McKenna. The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya, 1912-1949. Singapore:
Singapore University Press, 1990.
蔡少卿,〈澳洲鳥修威雪梨中華商會研究(1902-1943)〉,《江蘇社會科學》,2005 年第 4 期,頁 198-204。
Brett, Judith. “Relaxed & Comfortable: The Liberal Party’s Australia.” Quarterly Essay 19, 2005, pp. 1-79.
Calhoun, Craig. “Indirect Relationships and Imagined Communities: Large-scale Social Integration and the Transformation of Everyday Life.” In Pierre Bourdieu and James S. Coleman, eds., Social Theory for a Changing Society. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1991.
Hsu, Madeline Y. “Qiaokan and the Transnational Community of Taishan County, Guangdong, 1882-1943.” The China Review 4:1, spring 2004, pp. 123-144.
Kuo, Mei-fen. “Making Chinese Australia: The Role of Sydney Chinese Community, 1892-1912.” Ph.D. thesis, Melbourne: La Trobe University, 2008.
Kuo, Mei-fen. “The Chinese Australian Herald and the Shaping of a Modern ‘Imagined’ Chinese Community in 1890s Colonial Sydney.” Journal of Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies 2, 2008, pp. 34-53.
Kuo, Mei-fen. “The Making of a Diasporic Identity: The Case of the Sydney Chinese Commercial Elite, 1890s-1900s.” Journal of Chinese Overseas 5:2, 2009, pp. 336-363.
Wang, Gungwu. “South China Perspectives on Overseas Chinese.” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 13, January 1985, pp. 69-84.
Wang, Ming-ke. “From the Qiang Barbarians to the Qiang Nationality: The Making of a New Chinese Boundary.” In Shu-min Huang and Cheng-kuang Hsu, eds., Imagining China: Regional Division and National Unity. Taipei: The Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, 1999.
Williams, Michael. “Would This Not Help Your Federation?” In Sophie Couchman, John Fitzgerald and Paul Macgregor, eds., After the Rush: Regulation, Participation and Chinese Communities in Australia 1860-1940. Kingsbury: Otherland Literary Journal, 2004.
Wood, Janice. “Chinese Residency in the Haymarket and Surry Hills-1880 to 1902.” BA (hons) thesis, Sydney: University of Sydney, 1994.
四、報紙與期刊
《廣益華報》,1896、1899-1901、1904、1909-1910、1912-1913。 《東華新報》,1899-1901。
《東華報》,1903-1912。
《愛國報》,1902-1905。
《警東新報》,1905-1912。 《申報》,1920。
Australia Star, 1908.
The Age (Melbourne), 1911.
-199-
Daily Telegraph, 1911.
Evening News, 1911-1912.
Sydney Morning Herald, 1904, 1910-1912. Sunday, 1911.
The Sun, 1911.
Weekly Times, 1903.
“Huaqiao” Narratives and Political Alliances of Urban Chinese-Australian Communities in the Early Twentieth Century
Kuo Mei-fen*
Abstract
This article examines narratives of “Huaqiao” in Australia to trace how identity was preserved through new political alliances and nationalism. It argues that urbanization, the White Australia policy, and Chinese nationalism all constributed to Chinese-Australian identity in the early twentieth century. For Chinese-Australians, the term “Huaqiao” was adopted following the growth in hostility towards Chinese around 1904 and 1905. Urban Chinese specifically adopted the term “Huaqiao” as a self-reflexive label that located them in an international Chinese diasporic network, and at the same time offered a vantage point for pressing particular national claims in Australia. Chinese-language newspapers introduced styles of rhetoric and narrative that fed directly into processes of social mobilization and identity transformation under way in Federation Australia.
Mobilizing in the name of the Chinese “Huaqiao” diaspora began to make sense as an alternative form of community politics and cultural nationalism after 1909. Politics provided a compelling language for imagining Chinese-Australian social networks, identities, and imageries, and for wider dreams of dignity, peace, and prosperity. Political rhetoric and narratives thus contributed to the uniting of Chinese-Australians. The alliance of the “Young China League” in 1911 on the eve of the Xinhai Revolution demonstrated that a consciouness of modernity and Australian experiences was constituting the historical consciousness of
*
School of Social Science, La Trobe University (Melbourne, Australia); Australian Research Council
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Chinese-Australians. This article thus shows that Chinese-Australian identity in the White-Australian period was more than merely a refinement of native kinship practices and inherited identities. The style of Chinese-Australian nationalism proclaimed in the local Chinese press was rooted in new historical narratives and modern models of political community.
Keywords: Chinese-Australians, “Huaqiao,” urbanization, White Australia Policy, Chinese nationalism 作者: masonou 时间: 2019-8-10 13:19
华人好像普遍不太关心这些作者: 飞儿 时间: 2019-8-10 13:28
惭愧,十多年了,足迹某种程度上也成了我发贴兼保存信息的地方。作者: 飞儿 时间: 2019-8-19 09:28
What's happening among Australian Chinese community today, happened to our predecessors more than 100 years ago only in a different sense........ 作者: 飞儿 时间: 2019-8-22 19:04 ”36《愛國報》能夠成功 出刊的關鍵之一,是因為得到墨爾本華裔領袖黃世彥的支持。37黃世彥不僅是 岡州會館的成員之一,他在 1901 年籌辦華裔慶祝聯邦政府和約克公爵來訪的 慶典,以及 1902 年歡迎中國駐新加坡總領事的歡迎會,也顯示了他整合華裔 不同團體的領導能力。38
與梁啟超 1903 年前對支持革命的傾向相似,《愛國報》一開始就展現其 支持革命的立場,也因此被後來國民黨的官方史家視為澳洲支持孫中山革命的 濫觴。《愛國報》創刊之際,就大量轉載支持孫中山革命的《中國日報》和《中 國新報》的新聞,1903 年初《愛國報》更報導了從澳洲回廣東的華裔人士謝 纘泰所策劃的起義,這個計畫當時尚未在香港與中國曝光。39《愛國報》積極 地向墨爾本的華裔社群宣揚革命者的政治理念,不僅成為澳洲唯一一份支持革 命的報刊,也是東南亞及大洋洲地區在《圖南日報》出版前,唯一宣揚革命的 報刊。40《愛國報》更強調,對於孫中山革命的支持緣於他們對民主思想與社 會的尊崇,藉此宣稱與太平天國起義的理想跟結構大不相同。41”